- 🔬Pathophysiology
- Chronic airflow limitation from emphysema (alveolar destruction) and/or chronic bronchitis; usually smoking-related.
- 🩺Signs & Symptoms
- Chronic productive cough, progressive dyspnea, barrel chest, prolonged expiration, ↓ breath sounds.
- 🎯Gold Standard Diagnosis
- Spirometry: post-bronchodilator FEV1/FVC <0.70 (airflow obstruction that is not fully reversible).
- 💊First-line Treatment
- Smoking cessation + inhaled bronchodilators (LAMA/LABA); add ICS for frequent exacerbations; O₂ if hypoxemic.